Caerhun's Garrison

The Roman Army at Caerhun

Image Copyright & Courtesy of H.J.P.A/Sol Invictus

The unit or units that garrisoned Kanovium are unknown. Two forts in the North Wales network have provided proof of occupation, Caer Gai at Bala has provided a very rare inscribed pediment base (this dates to the end of the 1st century A.D, a time when auxiliary cohorts didn’t normally leave written records in stone) of the 1st cohort of Nervians. The Segontium fort at Caernarvon has provided an inscription recording the renovation of the fort aqueduct, this dates to the early 3rd century (a time when the cohorts did normally start to leave epigraphical records) by the 1st cohort of Sunici. There are not particularly many more from the whole of Wales, Brecon Gaer was garrisoned by the 1st cohort of Vettones, while a stamped tile survives from Caersws fort recording the 1st cohort of either Cornovii or Celtiberians. So in view of this paucity it is not surprising that a robbed out fort such as Kanovium doesn’t supply any clues to the names of the units serving there. We do have the names of two soldiers stationed here though, a Primitivus and a Cnatus both sound very Celtic. So how do we find out in the future in the event of new discoveries? The names of the garrison may survive on the dedication slabs, when a fort was completed or if new work had been undertaken then the garrison would record their work on slabs and these would have been set up above principle gates into the fort, of wood in early forts and stone later, also it can come down to us in graffito (as the two soldiers names have) writing lessons done on bits of broken pot, also baggage tags in lead survive with unit names, also ‘centurial stones’ recording work done, and finally on altars or grave slabs. A baggage tab was found at Caerhun fort but it was uninscribed. It is safe to say that all the dedication slabs are gone, all moved from original locations, but there must be many caches of altars buried around the site, altars were decommissioned annually and the previous years examples were buried carefully usually around the parade ground (which may lie under Caerhun Hall or gardens). Anyone, even you might find a bit of pot visiting the site, and it is just possible this may recall a garrison name, and please tell me if you do! No gravestones are visible at any of the roads out of Kanovium, so it is safe to say most must have been smashed up or carried off many hundreds of years ago, bits must be buried and maybe one day evidence will be found.

We can however be definite to what the garrison looked like, we know Kanovium was a fort of the smaller variety and was constructed to hold a fairly large garrison of provincials of conscripts (or equally volunteers) of countries subject to Roman rule, being forced to join the Roman army these soldiers were at the Flavian period trained up in an inferior manner to the legion troops, and expected to bear the brunt of battle, frontier garrisoning, police duties, tax collection and guard duty, they are however regular Roman soldiers and a brief discription of their history and activities can be seen below.

The above image is a modern reconstruction of an auxiliary soldier. The vast majority of the Kanovium garrison would have looked similar, this is an infantry or foot soldier, the cavalrymen present, if the cohort was a mixed ‘equestrian cohort’ would have been equipped in the same kit, but with longer sword and spear. The soldier is a member of Legio Secunda Augusta, thanks to them for allowing use of the image
Re-enactment societies like this one attempt to reconstruct the military kit of the Roman soldier, all aspects of the equipment are authentic in both construction and design, and some pieces such as items of the belt are actually cast from Roman originals. Along with these Roman originals, the reconstruction is also based on sword (Pompeii type gladius) finds from Caernarvon and Dorset, and on the epigraphical (stone carvings) evidence portrayed on the remarkable sculptures depicted on Trajan’s column, which stands to this day at Rome.

The soldier, or ‘miles’ in latin, is equipped in the standard Roman military kit of the early 2nd century AD. He wears a sturdy (if dull and undecorated) copper alloy helmet, called the ‘cassis’ it is similar to the legionary types but features no embellishment or fittings for a crest. The crown is protected by a cross-bracing of copper alloy, the neck is protected by a flared guard, as are the ears, the face is covered by cheek pieces which allow the helmet to be securely fastened beneath the chin, strangely no protection for the nose is used at this time. The front of the head is protected by a brow band. The helmet was padded out on the inside with wool, the helmet was essential protection from sweeping sword cuts, and this along with the armour and weapons moved the auxiliary soldier into the realm of a Celtic chief, he was that well armoured.

The soldier’s upper body is protected by a chainmail shirt, known as ‘lorica hamata’, consisting of over 25.000 individual iron links,of 6mm diameter, this took many weeks constant labour to produce, there is some discussion to who made the chainmail, some people favour slaves or children, but it is accepted you cannot force somebody to make this type of armour, you would need light, warmth in winter, a comfortable seat and some good quality steel tools. The value of this type of armour is evident in the fact no complete Roman period shirt has survived, therefore recycling must have been the normal method as a shirt might represent a life’s labour to an Iron age person. The heavy but flexible armour offered good protection from swinging swords cuts, but was useless against arrows and spears. The auxiliaries of this class depicted on Trajan’s column are all wearing this type of armour, and the shirts feature the decoration known as ‘dagged’ edges. British excavation has provided proof that higher status troops such as the legionary soldier, standard bearers and centurions in particular, also wore this type of armour, though in smaller ring diameter, and often with rivetted rings in as little as 2mm diameter. Worn underneath the mail would have been a stiff leather jerkin, this would aid protection from missiles and helped undergarments stay clean and rust free, like the tunica it would have been decorated with fringes at the base and arm holes. The auxilia also wore ‘lorica squamata’ or scale armour, this is the quickess, cheapest and least effective form of protection used, and recent evidence hints that they may also have worn the legionary style plate armour which would have been better protection and more cost effective (at least in the construction stage) than the other two types. In battle he would be protected by a large flat oval or hexagonal shield, the ‘clipeus’ (and again maybe the curved scuta used by the legionary) this shield with its ‘boss’ of iron or bronze, ‘umbo’ protecting the hand (also handy to smash in an opponent’s face) would have been painted or more likely metallically embossed with the soldier’s cohort emblems and battle honours, which sometimes took the form of crescent moons, or wreaths, edged in metal, the shield must have been something of a proud symbol as when not in use was protected by an elaborate leather cover, with a name plate and a decorative fringe. The crescent moon designs are maybe how modern horse brasses, seen mostly in pubs and inns, today, originated.

The soldier carries three offensive weapons, which where identical to those carried by the legionary. A short sword or ‘gladius’ is suspended on a ‘baldric’ over the left shoulder, and a large dagger ‘pugio’ is attached to the elaborate silver waist belt the ‘balteus’ with the distinctive but useless jingling apron of silvered discs. There is some evidence (Simkins) that the swords especially in the mid 2nd century, being very mass produced and were of a poor quality, the Caernarvon example reveals a glued repair to the hand guard, the place one made of bone or wood would expect to break, the individual would have been free to buy his own sword, though would have still been charged by the army for the standard issue. His normal weapon was a thrusting spear ‘hasta’ which was never discharged, though the legionary ‘pilum’ or javelin was also probably used. He wears the Celtic type patterned woollen clothing, including long trousers, ‘feminalia’ the wearing of the legionary undyed white tunic may have been a privilege only afforded to the Roman citizen, which this man may have been, but likely was not. On his feet he wears the sturdy studded openwork boot the ‘caligae’, though in cold weather closed boots would have been worn. Around his neck he wears a woollen scarf ‘focale’ secured by a simple ‘T’ shaped fibula or brooch, the scarf was used to protect the neck from the helmet thongs. If the auxiliary soldier completed the regulation 25 years in service he was awarded Roman citizenship and was issued with a ‘diploma’ made of metal and stamped with all the different soldiers names that were being discharged, there is some evidence that the military did this en-block once enough men were available for discharge and sometimes the soldier may have to serve 26 years while enough names had been collected. Two copies of each diploma were made one for the soldier and one retained by the army, these occasionally turn up and are valuable indications into Roman troop movements. The legionary on discharge received a plot of land (a centurial plot) and a valuable cash donative, the auxiliary had to make do with citizenship, but at least his sons were now eligible to join the legions. The infantry auxilia were paid one third that of a citizen soldier.

Caerhun would have seen many different classes of soldiers, legionaries from Chester would have been frequent visitors, all would have worn different equipment, and all would have looked different from the auxiliary soldier shown. This image shows three such soldiers, left to right - a cavalry decurion, possibly four of these at the site, a low status officer, in charge of 32 troopers, roughly ranked as a junior centurion. The main difference between him the auxiliary above is the tunic colour, this man wears a bright red ‘tunica’, which would have cost the auxiliary soldier several years pay. Bright clothing was very expensive, there is some evidence that the tunica would have cost more money than a helmet and weaponry. This bright colour indicates the soldier’s rank, he was paid many times more than the foot soldier, and he was also open to bribes. He wears a more expensive helmet, which has side crests of horsehair and a longer and narrower sword, the spatha. He holds a cohort vexillum, flag, of a regiment type known to have operated in North Wales, coh I ner, 1st cohort of Nervians are attested at Bala fort, Caer Gai.

The man in the middle is a centurion, Caerhun would have had six if the garrison was 500 or eight if 1000 strong, each in charge of 80-100 men, well paid, again open to bribes, and equipped with a vine stick, the ‘vitis’, for enforcing corporal punishment. His kit is a radical opposite to the auxiliary, and would have probably represented a life’s work to the auxiliary. A red tunica, is worn beneath a leather arming doublet, over both, a chainmail shirt. A series of battle honours (phalerae) are worn on a leather strap system, and his short cloak is held by twin torques, which are meant to represent the types worn around the neck of Celtic warriors. His helmet is extremely well made and silver plated, and carries a transverse crest to denote his rank.

To the right is a legionary optio, a centurion’s deputy, again 6 or 8 at the fort, the man would step in for training if the centurio was ill, but mostly he was simply a clerk, and he carries a small bag for his records. He carries a large stick with a ball on the end, the ‘hastile’ again used to hit an offender, from evidence in the form of a relief from the fortress at Mainz. He wears the characteristic ‘lorica segmentata’ armour, this name is not Roman but from the 17th century, it is composed of overlapping iron plates, is quick and simple to make and will easily turn a spear. The optio always stood at the back of his century in battle to ensure none of his soldiers attempted to flee the field.

This camp scene features the leather army tents, the ‘papillo’ and items of legionary equipment.

These images are the typical public idea of what the Roman soldier looked like, we, as children led to believe they marched onto the beach in A.D 43 dressed like this, and 350 years later at the beginning of the 5th century they marched out again, still wearing the same kit.

This obviously cannot be, imagine today’s modern army fighting the Gulf War dressed like Oliver Cromwell’s soldiers, 400 years is a long time, fashions changed then too, the Roman soldier of the 3rd and 4th centuries was dressed nothing like the above soldiers. The strip armour? apparently this never really made it into the 3rd century, the short sword remained, now called the ‘semi spatha’, but most soldiers carried the cavalry spatha, a sword more suited to the more open (and cavalry based) warfare which would become the norm.

The precise reason that the kit went through such a radical change is unknown, fashion is one thing, but cannot explain design differences, which in the case of the helmet is inferior and really a short cut. A serious plague at the time of Claudius Gothicus, AD 270, may be a contributing factor, not only did it kill the emperor himself but it also killed off a lot of soldiers, and many skills were forgotten, helmets ceased to be turned or beaten, or spun, riveting became the norm, and which went on long into the Medieval period. Similar happened in 378 A.D at the Battle of Adrianopolis, when the Emperor Valentinian was so radically defeated that the greater part of the Roman army ceased to exist in one day. Skills do seem to have been lost (this is hard to comprehend, but it seems after the Roman withdraw from Britain people actually forgot how to make clay pots, even though the skill was rudimentary in the Neolithic and earlier) The soldiers that emerged in the early third century looked very different indeed, the following images illustrate this.

A Roman officer of the 4th century, around the time of Constantine this type of helmet became current. The first impression is that it looks Saxon, well this, is a fair assumption, the depleted Roman army had taken on Saxon manpower around the time of the usurpers Carausius and Allectus. Allectus employed Franks in his vain attempt to defeat Constantius Chlorus who staged a new conquest of Britain, he defeats the Franks near to the Solent, at what is now Southampton and marches his army to take London. Later the Roman army continue the trend of using Germanic mercenaries, these and the Saxons bring a new style of kit, alien to the old style legionary. This type of kit - the helmet, scale, lamella and mail armour, distinctive wide belts, the ‘cingulum’, in difference to the earlier balteus. The cingulum features buckles depicting dolphins and horses, strap ends appear very much like ones the Saxons will be wearing for the next few hundred years, and the belt is strengthen by stiffeners, some which look like propellers.

The Roman soldier looked like the man above for several hundred years, and most surviving forts on Hadrian’s Wall, also, Segontium, Deva, and all the Saxon shore forts would have been garrisoned by soldiers of this type. Notice the helmet, see it is still essentially Roman, now has Sassianian traits the cheekpieces being the chief Roman feature, but no longer spun on a lathe or beaten on an anvil this head piece is built in sections and riveted together, it seems the skill to create the old style had been lost. This is a radically new type of helmet design, similarities to this can be seen in the Coppergate Saxon helmet from York, and the Sutton Hoo Saxon helmet. Notice the nose protection? Roman helmets never had this before, while earlier Greek types did, but with three foot spathas and axes, waving around this was essential. Also the old style ear protection was lost, these helmets and the more simple foot counterparts just now had earholes. This type of helmet can be seen on Constantinian coin types. Notice the scale armour, very characteristic, no plate armour now, chainmail still exists, armour now very expensive and it seems to be worn beneath leather arming doublets.

The style of war had changed too, the days of the old heavy infantry brigade had gone, the main role had now switched to the cavalry. This can be seen most clearly in the army of Arthur and his contemporaries, swift elite cavalry units, well able to reach an adversary quickly and defeat them. The legions are reduced in both size and status by Constantine and these new horse brigades are given the name of the comitatenses or ‘field army’. Frontier duties had become the work of the ‘limitatenses’. The limitatenses seems to have been the old style cohorts, the boundaries of the empire had been known as the ‘limes’ In Britain these frontiers were - the Saxon shore, Hadrian’s Wall (the old style cohorts still in evidence, though in the new kit) Wales, in view of the Irish, and equally the Lake District and West Cumbria. These troops had been expected to hold order and possibly quell minor rebellions, but in more serious troubles the comitatenses had to rapidly reach an area and put down the rebellion.

The remains at Segontium mostly date from the 4th century so we can be fairly certain the new type Roman soldier would also have been at Caerhun in small numbers. The image below shows a cavalry trooper of the 4th century.

A cavalry soldier of the field army of the 4th century. This man wears a similar head piece to that of the above officer. His armour differs in that it is lamella armour, of eastern origin it is composed of metal plates which are sown onto a leather arming doublet, which still reflects the old Hellenistic tradition in that it still features the leather strips, ‘pteruges’ like the one the centurio wears above. Many cavalry troopers now wore scale armour which covered the head and horse, this ‘cataphractarii’ reflected the earlier enemies of Rome, the Sarmatians, (employed first by Hadrian) useful in a shock charge but useless in open warfare. The trooper can be seen to have a container for throwing darts, short lead weighted ‘barbuli’ these reflect the old cavalry displays, when horsemen threw small spears at targets. Notice the man wears long sleeves and trousers, the old style tunica and ‘brachae’ long gone . The spatha or long sword was now the chief weapon, which had largely remained the same as the old style version, but all scabbard mounts had changed, or gone all together. This soldier, a relative of the old ala unit (most titles had remained the same, even into the Byzantine period) was the direct influence on the Medieval knight.

The 4th-5th century Roman infantry. All men now carry a large round or oval shield. Many different late Roman helmets can be seen on this image, the Roman army starting to merge which is essentially now an early Medieval type of gear, but some old Imperial army habits are still present, a soldier still wears an animal skin on his helmet. Long spears are present, and shield design, still a feature, sometimes features Christian imagery, which regarded Constantine’s Christian vision, and the resulting victory at the Milvian bridge.

An army on the run, we can be fairly sure the last Roman soldiers at Kanovium would have looked like this, If you take a walk on Iter XI, up past Bodnant gardens, up to Bryn y Maen, passing close to Colwyn Bay and on towards the area of Abergele, not possible but you would soon reach Pen y Corddyn Mawr, the first main settlement site of this period east of the river, in 1992, a casual walker, found a highly decorated double dolphin/horse buckle and strap end, early 5th century, it provides insight into Roman activity, they had left Kanovium to watch the Irish Sea for traces of pirates, I think the Conwy fort became out of touch with activities which now centred more on the North Wales coast, therefore though Kanovium was renovated around 150 AD maybe a Roman garrison was possibly moved into Pen y Corddyn Mawr, there are finds to prove a Hadrianic occupation, a sherd of Samian, a sestertius of Hadrian, and a legionary type pilum head. The fort, along with its outlying hill Cefn yr Ogof provide a spectacular view of the Irish Sea, the Irish pirates were now the threat not the indigenous population who had long since considered themselves Romans, these pirates must have been a real problem to the ailing military command, starved of manpower, equipment and even the soldier’s pay, the Irish must have know this, and in a manner similar to the later Vikings must have harried the North Wales coast in search of booty. Indeed we already have the ‘Saxon shore’ in Southern England, it has been suggested we have here an ‘Irish shore’ and a fort and watchtower had been constructed at Holyhead and Holyhead Mountain to monitor movements. Once Roman control of North Wales was finally diminished roughly, around 390-400 A.D, the Irish then became free to settle and many of the ‘Irishmens huts’ are to be found around Snowdonia, there is no proof they were actually inhabited by the Irish, but it does record some sort of folk memory. Finally even in to the 6th century some high status settlement sites in the area, such as Dinas Emrys in the Gwynant Valley continued to be supplied with high quality goods and wine, supplied by the Mediterranean areas that had once been the Roman Empire, the trade routes continuing to exist. Proof of the Roman style constitution existing still in the 5th and 6th century A.D in North Wales is supplied in the form of latinized grave stones from the old Roman road (Bryn y Gefeiliau to Tomen y Mur) at Penmachno (now in Penmachno Church) and still in situ at Gwytherin Churchyard, those these may have been moved from a nearby barrow, possibly of Prehistoric date.

Special Thanks to Dan Shadrake and Britannia for Supplying Images of Late Roman Army